Terahertz-infrared ellipsometer system, and method of use

ABSTRACT

The present invention relates to ellipsometer and polarimeter systems, and more particularly is an ellipsometer or polarimeter or the like system which operates in a frequency range between 300 GHz or lower and extending to higher than at least 1 Tera-hertz (THz), and preferably through the Infra-red (IR) range up to, and higher than 100 THz, including:
         a source such as a backward wave oscillator; a Smith-Purcell cell; a free electron laser, or an FTIR source and a solid state device; and   a detector such as a Golay cell; a bolometer or a solid state detector;
 
and preferably including at least one odd-bounce polarization state image rotating system, and optionally including a polarizer, at least one compensator and/or modulator, in addition to an analyzer.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO OTHER APPLICATIONS

This Application is a CIP of Ser. No. 12/456,791 Filed Jun. 23, 2009 andtherevia Claims Benefit of Provisional Application Ser. No. 61/208,735Filed Feb. 27, 2009, and further Claims Benefit of ProvisionalApplication Ser. No. 61/281,905 Filed Nov. 22, 2009.

STATEMENT OF FINANCIAL SUPPORT

This invention which is subject in this application was developed inpart under support provided by a Grant from the Army under Phase I ARMYSTTR Contract No. W911NF-08-C-01121.

The portion of this invention concerning the “odd bounce image rotationsystem and method of use” in this application was developed in partunder support provided by a Grant from the National Science Foundationunder Phase II SBIR Contract No. 9901510.

The United States Government has certain rights in this invention.

TECHNICAL FIELD

The present invention relates to ellipsometer and polarimeter systemswhich comprise a source of electromagnetic radiation, a polarizationstate generator, a sample supporting stage, a polarization statedetector and a detector of electromagnetic radiation, and moreparticularly is an ellipsometer or polarimeter or the like system whichoperates in a frequency range between 300 GHz or lower and extending tohigher than at least 1 Tera-hertz (THz), and preferably through theInfra-red (IR) range up to, and higher than 100 THz, comprising:

-   -   a source such as a backward wave oscillator; a Smith-Purcell        cell; a free electron laser, an FTIR source and/or a solid state        device; and    -   a detector such as a Golay cell; a bolometer and/or a solid        state detector;        preferably in functional combination with a polarization state        image rotating system comprised of a sequence of an odd number        of reflecting elements, such that a polarized electromagnetic        beam caused to enter, reflectively interacts with the odd number        of reflecting elements and exits in a direction which is        essentially non-deviated and non-displaced, with an azimuthally        rotated, but otherwise substantially unchanged, polarization        state.

BACKGROUND

The practice of ellipsometry is well established as a non-destructiveapproach to determining characteristics of sample systems, and can bepracticed in real time. The topic is well described in a number ofpublications, one such publication being a review paper by Collins,titled “Automatic Rotating Element Ellipsometers: Calibration, Operationand Real-Time Applications”, Rev. Sci. Instrum., 61(8) (1990).

Before proceeding, as it is relevant to the present invention, it isnoted that ellipsometer systems generally comprise means for setting alinear or elliptical polarization state, (typically substantiallylinear).

Continuing, in general, modern practice of ellipsometry typicallyinvolves causing a spectroscopic beam of electromagnetic radiation, in aknown state of polarization, to interact with a sample system at leastone angle of incidence with respect to a normal to a surface thereof, ina plane of incidence. (Note, a plane of incidence contains both a normalto a surface of an investigated sample system and the locus of said beamof electromagnetic radiation). Changes in the polarization state of saidbeam of electromagnetic radiation which occur as a result of saidinteraction with said sample system are indicative of the structure andcomposition of said sample system. The practice of ellipsometry furtherinvolves proposing a mathematical model of the ellipsometer system andthe sample system investigated by use thereof, and experimental data isthen obtained by application of the ellipsometer system. This istypically followed by application of a square error reducingmathematical regression to the end that parameters in the mathematicalmodel which characterize the sample system are evaluated, such that theobtained experimental data, and values calculated by use of themathematical model, are essentially the same.

A typical goal in ellipsometry is to obtain, for each wavelength in, andangle of incidence of said beam of electromagnetic radiation caused tointeract with a sample system, sample system characterizing PSI andDELTA values, (where PSI is related to a change in a ratio of magnitudesof orthogonal components r_(p)/r_(s) in said beam of electromagneticradiation, and wherein DELTA is related to a phase shift entered betweensaid orthogonal components r_(p) and r_(s)), caused by interaction withsaid sample system. The governing equation is:

ρ=rp/rs=Tan(Ψ)exp(iΔ)

As alluded to, the practice of ellipsometry requires that a mathematicalmodel be derived and provided for a sample system and for theellipsometer system being applied. In that light it must be appreciatedthat an ellipsometer system which is applied to investigate a samplesystem is, generally, sequentially comprised of:

-   -   a. a Source of a beam electromagnetic radiation;    -   b. a Polarizer element;    -   c. optionally a compensator element;    -   d. (additional element(s));    -   e. a sample system;    -   f. (additional element(s));    -   g. optionally a compensator element;    -   h. an Analyzer element; and    -   i. a Spectroscopic Detector System.        Each of said components b.-i. must be accurately represented by        a mathematical model of the ellipsometer system along with a        vector which represents a beam of electromagnetic radiation        provided from said source of a beam electromagnetic radiation,        Identified in a. above)

Various conventional ellipsometer configurations provide that aPolarizer, Analyzer and/or Compensator(s) can be rotated during dataacquisition, and are describe variously as Rotating Polarizer (RPE),Rotating Analyzer (RAE) and Rotating Compensator (RCE) EllipsometerSystems. It is noted, that nulling ellipsometers also exist in whichelements therein are rotatable in use, rather than rotating. Generally,use of a nulling ellipsometer system involves imposing a substantiallylinear polarization state on a beam of electromagnetic radiation with alinear polarizer, causing the resulting polarized beam ofelectromagnetic radiation to interact with a sample system, and thenadjusting an analyzer to an azimuthal azimuthal angle which effectivelycancels out the beam of electromagnetic radiation which proceeds pastthe sample system. The azimuthal angle of the analyzer at which nullingoccurs provides insight to properties of the sample system.

Continuing, in use, data sets can be obtained with an ellipsometersystem configured with a sample system present, sequentially for caseswhere other sample systems are present, and where an ellipsometer systemis configured in a straight-through configuration wherein a beam ofelectromagnetic radiation is caused to pass straight through theellipsometer system without interacting with a sample system.Simultaneous mathematical regression utilizing multiple data sets canallow calibration of ellipsometers and evaluation of sample systemcharacterizing PSI and DELTA values over a range of wavelengths. Theobtaining of numerous data sets with an ellipsometer system configuredwith, for instance, a sequence of sample systems present and/or whereina sequential plurality of polarization states are imposed on anelectromagnetic beam caused to interact therewith, can allow systemcalibration of numerous ellipsometer system variables.

Before disclosing known references, it is noted that computer searchingat the PTO Website for Patents and Published Applications containing thewords:

-   -   (ellipsometer & bolometer); and    -   (ellipsometer & Golay cell);        produced only one hit, that being Published Application        US2005/0175507 by Tsukruk. Said 507 reference does contain the        words ellipsometry and Golay, but does not describe an        ellipsometer system comprising said elements.

Further, a PTO Website Search for Patents and Published Applicationscontaining the words:

-   -   (ellipsometer & backward wave oscillator);    -   (ellipsometer & Smith-Purcell); and    -   (ellipsometer & free electron laser);        produced only U.S. Pat. No. 5,317,618 to Nakahara et al., which        contains the words ellipsometer & free electron laser, but does        not describe a combination of said elements.

A patent to Wang et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,914,492 is of interest as itdescribes free electron lasers used in combination with a Golay cell andSmith-Purcell detectors. However, it does not describe application inellipsometry or polarimetry.

A Published Application, US2006/0050269 by Brownell describes use of afree electron laser and a Smith-Purcell detector, but not in the contextof ellipsometry or polarimetry.

An article titled “Gain of a Smith-Purcell Free Electron Laser”, Andrewset al., Phy. Rev., Vol 7, 070701 (2004), describes use of Smith-PurcellFree Electron Laser.

U.S. Pat. No. 2,985,790 to Kompfner is disclosed as it describes aBackward Wave Oscillator.

U.S. Pat. No. 2,880,355 to Epsztein is disclosed as it describes aBackward Wave Oscillator.

Known References which describe Ellipsometers which operate in the THzfrequency range are:

-   -   “Terahertz Generalized Meuller-matrix Ellipsometery”, Hofmann et        al., Proc. of SPIE, Vol. 6120, pp. 61200D1-61200D10, (2005),        describes applying Thz electromagnetic radiation in generalized        ellipsometry wherein the source of the Thz electromagnetic        radiation is a synchrotron located at BESSY, in Germany.    -   “Terahertz magneto-optic generalized ellipsometry using        synchrotron and blackbody radiation”, Hofmann et al., American        Inst. of Physics, 77, 063902-1 through 063902-12, (2006),        describes applying Thz electromagnetic radiation in generalized        ellipsometry wherein the source of the Thz electromagnetic        radiation is a synchrotron and a conventional blackbody. The use        of an FTIR source and bolometer is also mentioned.    -   “Label-free Amplified Bioaffinity Detection Using Terahertz Wave        Technology”, Menikh et al., Biosensors and Bioelectronics 20,        658-662 (2004), describes use of an unbiased GaAs crystal THz        source of electromagnetic radiation and a ZnTe crystal detector.    -   Spectroscopy by Pulsed Terahertz Radiation”, Hango et al., Meas.        Sci. and Technol., 13 (2002), pp 1727-1738, describes applying        30 GHz-10 THz and describes use of Fourier Transform        Spectrometers (FTS) in the Far Infrared (FIR) frequency range        with the caution that such an approach is not easily applied        below 1 THz. Said reference also describes application of        Backward Wave Oscillators (BWO) plus frequency multipliers, with        the caution that to cover the range of 30 GHz to 3 THz typically        requires many BWO's and frequency multipliers to cover said        frequency range. This article favors use of a Femto-sec laser        (eg. a mode-locked Ti:saphire laser or Er-doped fiber laser in        combination with a photoconductive antenna made on        low-temperature grown GaAs).    -   “Measurement of Complex Optical Constants of a Highly Doped Si        Wafer Using Terahertz Ellipsometry”, Nagashima et al., Applied        Phys. Lett. Vol. 79, No. 24 (10 Dec. 2001). This article        describes use of a mode-locked Ti:saphire laser with a bow-tie        antenna and GaAs detector antenna).    -   Published Patent Application No. US2004/0027571 by Luttman        mentions using a THz light Source in an ellipsometer system.    -   “Development of Terahertz Ellipsometry and its Application to        Evaluation of Semiconductors”, Nagashima et al., Tech. Meeting        on Light Application and Visual Science, IEEE (2002) proposes a        Terahertz ellipsometer.    -   “Terahertz Imaging System Based on a Backward-Wave Oscillator,        Dobroiu et al., Applied Optics, Vol. 43, No 30, (20 Oct. 2004)        describes use of a Terahertz source to provide electromagnetic        radiation.

A patent to Herzinger et al. U.S. Pat. No. 6,795,184, describes an“Odd-Bounce” system for rotating a polarization state in anelectromagnetic beam. Patents disclosed in the Application leading toU.S. Pat. No. 6,795,184 are:

-   -   Patent to Herzinger, U.S. Pat. No. 6,137,618 is disclosed as it        describes a Single Brewster Angle Polarizer in the context of        multiple reflecting means, and discloses prior art dual Brewster        Angle Single Reflective Means Polarizer Systems.    -   Patent, to Herzinger et al., U.S. Pat. No. 6,084,675 describes        an adjustable beam alignment compensator/retarder with        application to spectroscopic ellipsometry.    -   U.S. Pat. No. 6,118,537 to Johs et al. describes a multiple        Berek plate optical retarder system.    -   U.S. Pat. No. 6,141,102 to Johs et al. describes a single        triangular shaped optical retarder element.    -   U.S. Pat. No. 5,946,098 to Johs et al., describes dual tipped        wire grid polarizers in combination with various        compensator/retarder systems.    -   U.S. Pat. No. 6,100,981 to Johs et al., describes a dual        horizontally oriented triangular shaped optical retarder.    -   U.S. Pat. No. 6,084,674 to Johs et al., describes a        parallelogram shaped optical retarder element.    -   U.S. Pat. No. 5,963,325 to Johs et al., describes a dual        vertically oriented triangular shaped optical retarder element.    -   U.S. Pat. Nos. 7,450,231 and 7,460,230 to Johs et al. are        disclosed as they describe deviation angle self compensating        compensator systems.    -   A patent to Johs et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,872,630 is disclosed as        it describes an ellipsometer system in which an analyzer and        polarizer are maintained in a fixed in position during data        acquisition, while a compensator is caused to continuously        rotate.    -   A patent to Thompson et al. U.S. Pat. No. 5,706,212 is also        disclosed as it teaches a mathematical regression based double        Fourier series ellipsometer calibration procedure for        application, primarily, in calibrating ellipsometers system        utilized in infrared wavelength range. Bi-refringent,        transmissive window-like compensators are described as present        in the system thereof, and discussion of correlation of        retardations entered by sequentially adjacent elements which do        not rotate with respect to one another during data acquisition        is described therein.

Further patents disclosed in the 184 Patent are:

-   -   U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,757,494; and 5,956,145;    -   to Green et al., in which are taught a method for extending the        range of Rotating Analyzer/Polarizer ellipsometer systems to        allow measurement of DELTA'S near zero (0.0) and        one-hundred-eighty (180) degrees, and the extension of modulator        element ellipsometers to PSI'S of forty-five (45) degrees. Said        patents describes the presence of a variable, transmissive,        bi-refringent component which is added, and the application        thereof during data acquisition to enable the identified        capability.    -   A patent to He et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,963,327 is disclosed as        it describes an ellipsometer system which enables providing a        polarized beam of electromagnetic radiation at an oblique        angle-of-incidence to a sample system in a small spot area.    -   Patents of general interest disclosed in the 184 Patent include:        -   Patent to Woollam et al, U.S. Pat. No. 5,373,359, (describes            a beam chopper);        -   Patent to Johs et al. U.S. Pat. No. 5,666,201;        -   Patent to Green et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,521,706; and        -   Patent to Johs et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,504,582;            and are disclosed as they pertain to ellipsometer systems.    -   A patent to Coates et al., U.S. Pat. No. 4,826,321 is disclosed        as it describes applying a reflected monochromatic beam of plane        polarized electromagnetic radiation at a Brewster angle of        incidence to a sample substrate to determine the thickness of a        thin film thereupon. This patent also describes calibration        utilizing two sample substrates, which have different depths of        surface coating.    -   Other patents which describe use of reflected electromagnetic        radiation to investigate sample systems are:        -   U.S. Pat. Nos. RE 34,783, 4,373,817 5,045,704    -   to Coates; and        -   U.S. Pat. No. 5,452,091    -   to Johnson.    -   A patent to Biork et al., U.S. Pat. No. 4,647,207 is disclosed        as it describes an ellipsometer system which has provision for        sequentially, individually positioning a plurality of reflective        polarization state modifiers in a beam of electromagnetic        radiation. U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,210,401; 4,332,476 and 4,355,903 are        also identified as being cited in the 207 Patent. It is noted        that systems as disclosed in these patents, (particularly in the        476 Patent), which utilize reflection from an element to modify        a polarization state can, if such an element is an essential        duplicate of an investigated sample and is rotated ninety        degrees therefrom, the effect of the polarization state        modifying element on the electromagnetic beam effect is        extinguished by the sample.    -   A patent to Mansuripur et al., U.S. Pat. No. 4,838,695 is        disclosed as it describes an apparatus for measuring        reflectivity.    -   Patents to Rosencwaig et al., U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,750,822 and        5,596,406 are also identified as they describe systems which        impinge electromagnetic beams onto sample systems at oblique        angles of incidence. The 406 Patent provides for use of multiple        wavelengths and multiple angles of incidence. For similar        reasons U.S. Pat. No. 5,042,951 to Gold et al. is also        disclosed.    -   In addition to the identified patents, certain Scientific papers        were also disclosed in the 184 Patent are:    -   A paper by Johs, titled “Regression Calibration Method for        Rotating Element Ellipsometers”, Thin Solid Films, 234 (1993) is        also disclosed as it describes a mathematical regression based        approach to calibrating ellipsometer systems.

An additional relevant patent is U.S. Pat. No. 6,268,917 to Johs. Thispatent describes a combined polychromatic electromagnetic radiation beamsource comprising beam combiners.

It is also disclosed that the J.A. Woollman Co., Inc. has marketed an IRrange Ellipsometer, called the IR-VASE (Reg. TM), for many years. Saidinstrument provides capability from 10 THz to 150 THz and is a VariableAngle, Rotating Compensator system utilizing a Bomen FTIR Spectrometer.Further, it comprises an FTIR Source, and an Odd-Bounce image rotatingsystem for rotating a polarization state imposed by a wire-gridpolarizer. It is noted that as marketed, this system has never providedthe capability to reach down to 1 THz, which capability was achieved viaresearch in developing the present invention.

Additional references which describe ellipsometry practiced in the THzrange are:

-   -   “THz Ellipsometry in Theory and Experiment”, Dietz et al. 33rd        International Conference on Infrared and Millimeter Waves and        16th International Conference on Terahertz Electronics,        IRMMW-THz (2008) describes an experimental ellipsometer for use        in the THz frequency range;    -   “Study Terahertz Ellipsometry Setups for Measuring Metals and        Dielectrics Using Free Electron Laser Light Source”, Rudych,        31st International Conference on Infrared and Millimeter Waves        and 14th International Conference on Terahertz Electronics,        IRMMW-THz (2006) describes use of a free electron laser to        provide THz frequencies;    -   “Spectral THz Ellipsometer for the Unambiguous Determination of        all Stokess Parameters”, Holldack et al., 30th International        Conference on Infrared and Millimeter Waves and 13th        International Conference on Terahertz Electronics,        IRMMW-THz (2006) describes a concept for determining all Stokes        Parameters;    -   “Terahertz Magneto-Optic Generalized Ellipsometry Using        Synchrotron and Blackbody Radiation”, Esquinazi et al., Sci.        Instrum., Vol. 7, No. 6 (2006) describes use of synchrotron        generated electromagnetic radiation in magneto-optic generalized        ellipsometry;    -   “Terahertz Generalized Mueller-Matrix Ellisometry”, Esquinazi et        al. Proc. Int. Soc. Opt. Eng., Vol. 6120, (2006) describes        synchrotron generated electromagnetic radiation in generalized        Mueller Matrix ellipsometry:    -   “THz Time-Domain Magneto-Optic Ellipsometry in Reflection        Geometry”, Kuwata-Gonokami et al., Trends Opt. Photonics Series,        Vol. 97, (2004) describes determining a dielectric tensor using        THz frequencies in magneto-optic optical measurements;    -   “Terahertz Polarimetry”, Gallot et al., Conf. Lasers        Electro-Optics, CLEO, Vol. 3 (2005) describes determining the        polarization state of a THz wave over a wide range of        frequencies;    -   “Evaluation of Complex Optical Constants of Semiconductor Wafers        using Terahertz Ellipsometry”, Hangyo et al., Trends Opt.        Photonics Series, Vol. 88, (2003) describes combining terahertz        ellipsometry with time domain spectroscopy.

Additional references which describe sources of Terahertz frequencyrange electromagnetism are:

-   -   “Improved Performance of Hybrid Electronic Terahertz        Generators”, Hurlbut et al., 33rd International Conference on        Infrared and Millimeter Waves and Terahertz Waves, IRMMW-THz        (2008), describes combining BWO's with frequency multipliers;    -   “Terahertz Wave Generation in Orientation-Patterned GaAs Using        Resonantly Enhanced Schemes”, Vodopyanov et al., SPIE-Intl. Soc.        for Opt. Eng. USA, Vol. 6455, (2007), describes application of        Zincblende semiconductors (GaAs, GaP) to produce THz        frequencies;    -   “Terahertz BWO Spectroscopy of Conductors and Superconductors”,        Gorshunov et al., Quantum Electronics, Vol. 37, No. 10 (October        2007), describes methods for directly measuring dielectric        response spectra of dielectrics, conductors and superconductors        using BWO generated spectrometers;    -   “Portable THz Spectrometers”, Kozlov et al., 31st International        Conference on Infrared and Millimeter Waves and 14th        International Conference on Terahertz Electronics, IRMMW-THz        (2007), describes a portable THz spectrometer which operates in        the frequency range of 0.1-1 THz;    -   “Terahertz Time-Domain Spectrsocopy”, Nishizawa et al.,        Terahertz Optoelectronics, Topics Appl. Phys. 97, 203-271        (2005).    -   U.S. Pat. No. 7,339,718 to Vodopanov et al., Issued Apr. 3, 2008        describes a method for generating THz radiation comprising        illuminating a semiconductor with an optical pulse train.    -   U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,819,423 to Stehle et al., Issued Nov. 16, 2004        and 5,317,618 Issued Jan. 25, 2005 are also identified as they        mention application of THz frequencies in an ellipsometer        system.

It is noted that the Search Report for a co-pending PCT Application,PCT/US09/05346, was recently received. It identified the followingreferences: U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,795,184; 7,274,450 and 6,798,511; andPublished Applications Nos. US2004/0228371; US2007/0252992;US2006/0289761; US2007/0278407; US2007/0097373. Also identified were: aPh.D. dissertation by Duerr, Erik Kurt, titled “DistributedPhotomixers”, Mass. Inst. Tech., September 2002; and article titled“Hole Diffusion Profile in a P-P+ Silicon Homojunction Determined byTerahertz and Midinfrared Spectroscopic Ellipsometry”, Hofmann et al.,App. Phys. Lett., 95 032102 (2009).

The identified references, application Ser. No. 12/456,791, ProvisionalApplication Ser. No. 61/208,735 Serial and No. 61/281,905, are allincorporated by reference into this Specification.

Even in view of relevant prior art, there remains need for anellipsometer or polarimeter system for application in the Terahertzregion, preferably in combination with a convenient approach toproviding linearly polarized beams of electromagnetic radiation in whichthe azimuthal angle of the linear polarization can be controlled.

DISCLOSURE OF THE INVENTION

The present invention is a practical ellipsometer or polarimeter systemfor application in the range of frequencies between 300 GHz or below andproceeding well into, and preferably through the Infrared frequencyrange. The prior art demonstrates that it is not unknown to propose, orprovide a system for, and practice of ellipsometry at Terahertz (THz)frequencies, however, a specific embodiment than makes such possible andwhich is suitable for general application in Universities and industryetc., has not been previously disclosed. To the Applicant's knowledge,there are no commercially available THz ellipsometers or polarimetersavailable in the market place. This is even more so the case where theellipsometer or polarimeter also provides Infrared (IR) frequencycapability.

While Synchrotrons have been used to provide THz frequency bandelectromagnetic radiation in ellipsometers, it is not remotely possibleto provide a Synchrotron at every location whereat it is desired topractice THz ellipsometry. The present invention provides combination ofmany elements, which results in a novel, practical system for generalapplication in the market place.

Before proceeding, it is of benefit to define some terminology. First, agenerally accepted range for what constitutes a Terahertz range offrequencies is from 3×10¹¹ (ie. 300 GHz), to 1.3×10¹² (ie. 1.3 Thz),Hertz. The Terahertz range is sandwiched between the microwave, (thehigh end of which has a wavelength of 1 millimeter), and thefar-infrared, (the long-wavelength edge of which is 100 micrometers),ranges of wavelengths/frequencies.

Next, it is noted that a number of sources of Terahertz (THz)electromagnetic radiation exit. For instance, a Smith-Purcell cell is adevice which directs an energetic beam of electrons very close to aruled surface of a diffraction grating. The effect on the trajectory ofthe beam is negligible, but a result is that Cherenkov radiation in theTerahertz frequency range can be created, where the phase velocity ofthe electromagnetic radiation is altered by the periodic grating.Another source of Terahertz radiation is a Free Electron Laser. In thissource a beam of electrons is accelerated to relativistic speed andcaused to pass through a periodic transverse magnetic field. The arrayof magnets is sometimes called an undulator or “wiggler” as it causesthe electrons to form a sinusoidal path. The acceleration of theelectrons causes release of photons, which is “synchrotron radiation”.Further, the electron motion is in phase with the field of said releasedelectromagnetic radiation, and therefore the fields add coherently.Instabilities in the electron beam resulting from interactions of theoscillations in the undulators lead to emission of electromagneticradiation, wherein electrons radiate independently. The wavelength ofthe emitted electromagnetic radiation from the electrons can be adjustedby adjusting the energy of the electron beam and/or magnetic fieldstrength of the undulators, to be in the Terahertz range. Another sourceof Terahertz frequencies is a Backward Wave Oscillator (BWO), which is avacuum tube system comprising an electron gun that generates an electronbeam and causes it to interact with an electromagnetic wave traveling ina direction opposite to that of ejected electrons such that THzfrequency oscillations are sustained by interaction between thepropagating traveling wave backwards against the electron beam.

It is also disclosed that numerous detectors exist for monitoringTerahertz range electromagnetic radiation. One example is a Golay cellwhich operates by converting a temperature change resulting fromelectromagnetic radiation impinging onto material, into a measurablesignal. Generally, when electromagnetic radiation is caused to impingeon a blackened material it heats a gas, (eg. Xenon) in an first chamberof an enclosure, and that causes a distortable reflecting diagram/filmadjacent to said first chamber to change shape. In a second chamber,separated from the first by said diagram/film an electromagnetic beam iscaused to reflect from the film and into a photocell, which in turnconverts the received electromagnetic radiation into an electricalsignal. A Bolometer is another detector of monitoring Terahertz rangeelectromagnetic radiation, but operates by using the effect of achanging electric resistance caused by electromagnetic radiationimpinging onto a blackened metal.

It is also noted that there are Solid State sources and detectors ofTerahertz frequency electromagnetic radiation. For instance, anidentified reference by Nagashima et al. discloses that THz pulses canbe generated by a bow-tie photoconductive radiation antenna excited by amode-locked Ti-saphire laser with 80 Fs time width pulses, and adetection antenna can be formed from a dipole-type photoconductiveantenna with a 5 micron gap fabricated on thin film LT-GaAs. Further, itis known that a company named AB Millimeter in Paris France, supplies asystem that covers the entire range from 8 GHz to 1000 GHz with solidstate source and detector devices.

With the above insight, it is disclosed that application Ser. No.12/456,791 disclosed a system which comprises an ellipsometer orpolarimeter system which comprises a selection from the group consistingof:

-   -   a1) a source of electromagnetic radiation in functional        combination with a polarization state generator that provides        substantially polarized output in a frequency range between 300        GHz or lower and extending higher than at least 1 THz;    -   a2) a polarization state generator comprising a THz source of        electromagnetic radiation that provides substantially polarized        output in a frequency range between 300 GHz or lower and        extending higher than at least 1 THz;    -   b) a sample support;    -   c) at least one detector of electromagnetic radiation, said at        least one detector being capable of detecting electromagnetic        radiation in a range of between 300 GHz or lower and extending        higher than at least 1 THz.        Said ellipsometer or polarizer system further comprises, between        said THz source and said detector, at least one selection from        the group:    -   a stationary, rotatable or rotating polarizer between said THz        source and said sample support;    -   a stationary, rotatable or rotating analyzer between said sample        support and said detector;    -   a stationary, rotatable or rotating compensator between said        source and detector; and    -   an electro, acousto or opto-modulator;        the purpose thereof being to modulate a polarization state        during a data acquisition procedure.

It is noted that the polarization state generator comprising a THzsource of electromagnetic radiation that provides substantiallypolarized output in a frequency range between 300 GHz or lower andextending higher than at least 1 THz, utilizes natural polarizationprovided by the THz source and does not require use of a separatepolarizer; whereas said source of electromagnetic radiation infunctional combination with a polarization state generator that providessubstantially polarized output in a frequency range between 300 GHz orlower and extending higher than at least 1 THz, typically comprises aseparate polarizer.

Continuing, the THz source of electromagnetic radiation can comprise atleast one selection from the group consisting of:

-   -   a backward wave oscillator;    -   a Smith-Purcell cell;    -   a free electron laser; and    -   a solid state source device;        and preferably further comprises a frequency multiplier means        after said THz source of electromagnetic radiation, which        frequency multiplier receives electromagnetic radiation output        from said THz source, and provides harmonics of said        electromagnetic radiation in a range of between said source        output fundamental and about 1.6 THz.

Further, the ellipsometer or polarimeter system preferably comprises atleast one odd-bounce polarization state rotation system present between:

-   -   said THz source of electromagnetic radiation; and    -   said detector;        and comprises a method of its application in ellipsometer and        polarimeter and the like systems. This is beneficial in that it        eliminates the need to rotate an ellipsometer system Polarizer        to rotate a polarization state provided by the source of        electromagnetic radiation, optionally in combination with a        polarization state generator. The odd bounce optical image        rotating system is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,795,184 to        Herzinger et al. As described in said 184 Patent said odd bounce        serves optical image rotating system serves to rotate the        azimuthal angle of a linearly, or partially linearly polarized,        (ie. substantially polarized), beam of electromagnetic radiation        without entering significant deviation or displacement of the        propagation direction locus thereof, or significantly altering        the polarization state thereof, (ie. it does not cause        significant shifting of energy from a major intensity orthogonal        component into the other orthogonal component, or the shifting        of phase angle therebetween). The odd bounce optical image        rotating system can be described as a sequence of an odd number        of reflective elements oriented in a manner which causes an        entering beam of electromagnetic radiation to reflect from a        first thereof onto the second thereof and from the second        thereof onto the third thereof etc. For a three (3) reflective        element odd bounce optical image rotating element system, said        three reflections cause a beam of electromagnetic radiation to        emerge from the third reflective element with a rotated linear        or partially linear polarization azimuthal angle and in a        direction which is not significantly deviated or displaced from        the locus of the input beam, even when the odd bounce optical        image rotating system is caused to stepwise or continuously        rotate about an axis coincident with the locus of the beam of        electromagnetic radiation. The same is generally true for an odd        bounce optical image rotating element system comprising any odd        number, (eg. 3, 5, 7 etc.) of reflective elements. It is noted        that the greater the number of reflective elements the more        normal the angle of incidence a beam can make thereto, and        higher angles of incidence cause less aberration effects. Also,        where more than three reflection elements are present certain        non-idealities caused by the reflection elements can be canceled        by utilizing non-coincident coordinate systems for said        reflections. A trade-off, however, is that the greater the        number of reflective elements present, the more difficult it is        to align the system to avoid said beam deviation and        displacement.

Coupling the odd bounce optical image rotating system with asubstantially linear polarizing element, (which can comprise a source ofunpolarized electromagnetic radiation and a polarizer, or can comprise asource that provides polarized electromagnetic radiation at its output),provides a polarizer system in which the polarizing element can remainstationary while the azimuthal angle of the polarized beam ofelectromagnetism exiting therefrom, (as viewed from a position along thelocus of an electromagnetic beam caused to enter thereto), is rotated.

For general insight, it is also noted that a single three-hundred-sixty(360) degree rotation of an odd bounce optical image rotating elementsystem about an axis coincident with a beam of electromagnetic radiationwhich functionally passes therethrough, causes seven-hundred-twenty(720) degrees of rotation of the major intensity orthogonal component.This is not of any critical consequence, but is mentioned as it must betaken into account during practice of said methodology.

The detector of electromagnetic radiation in a range between 300 GHz orlower and extending higher than 1 THz, can be a selection from the groupconsisting of:

-   -   a Golay cell;    -   a bolometer    -   a solid state detector.

Further, said ellipsometer or polarimeter system further comprises anFTIR source and a detector for detecting said FTIR frequency output in afrequency range above about 1 THz, and means for selecting between:

-   -   said THz source of electromagnetic radiation and optional        frequency multiplier that provides THz frequency output in a        range between 300 GHz or lower and extending higher than at        least 1 THz; and    -   said FTIR source that provides output in an IR frequency range        above about 1 THz.

The detector for detecting said FTIR frequency output in a frequencyrange above about 1 THz, and in which said detector of electromagneticradiation in a range between 300 GHz or lower and extending higher thanat least 1 THz, are each independently selected from the group:

-   -   a Golay cell;    -   a bolometer; and    -   a solid state detector.

As mentioned, in a preferred embodiment, the ellipsometer or polarimetersystem has output from said THz source, preferably with a frequencymultiplier in functional combination, so that it overlaps output fromsaid FTIR source in frequency, between at least 1.0 to 1.4 THz. Andpreferably said sources are calibrated such that substantially the sameresults, (eg. ellipsometric PSI and/or DELTA), are achieved by analyzingoutput from either of the selected detectors in the frequency range ofbetween about 1.0 to 1.4 THz.

In more detail, a previously disclosed ellipsometer or polarimetersystem comprises:

a selection from the group consisting of:

-   -   a1) an FTIR source of electromagnetic radiation in functional        combination with a polarization state generator, that provides        substantially polarized output in a frequency range above about        1 THz; and    -   a2) a polarization state generator comprising an FTIR source of        electromagnetic radiation which provides substantially polarized        output in a frequency range above about 1 THz;        and a selection from the group consisting of:    -   a3) a THz source of electromagnetic radiation in functional        combination with a polarization state generator, that provides        substantially polarized output in a frequency range between 300        GHz or lower and extending higher than at least 1 THz;    -   a4) a polarization state generator comprising a THz source of        electromagnetic radiation that provides substantially polarized        output in a frequency range between 300 GHz or lower and        extending higher than at least 1 THz;    -   wherein said THz source of electromagnetic radiation comprises        at least one selection from the group consisting of:        -   a backward wave oscillator;        -   a Smith-Purcell cell;        -   a free electron laser; and        -   a solid state device;    -   preferably in functional combination with a frequency multiplier        for providing harmonics of a fundamental output frequency that        provides substantially polarized frequency output in a frequency        range between 300 GHz or lower and extending higher than at        least 1 THz.        Further, said ellipsometer or polarimeter comprises means for        selecting between said THz and FTIR sources.

Said ellipsometer or polarimeter further comprises:

-   -   b) a sample support;    -   c) a detector system of electromagnetic radiation comprising at        least one selection from the group consisting of:        -   a Golay cell detector;        -   a bolometer detector;        -   a solid state source device.            Said preferred ellipsometer or polarization system            embodiment further comprises at least one odd-bounce            polarization state rotation system present between:    -   said selected source; and    -   said selected detector.        And, said ellipsometer system further comprises, between said        selected source and said selected detector, at least one        selection from the group:    -   a stationary, rotatable or rotating polarizer between said THz        source and said sample support;    -   a stationary, rotatable or rotating analyzer between said sample        support and said detector;    -   a stationary, rotatable or rotating compensator between said        source and detector; and    -   an electro, acousto or opto-modulator.

In use a selected functional combination of selected source and selecteddetector is applied to cause electromagnetic radiation to impinge on andinteract with a sample on said sample support, then enter said selecteddetector, to the end that said detector produces an output.

Again, said preferred embodiment provides that the output from thefunctional combination of said selected THz source and preferably afrequency multiplier, and that from said FTIR source overlap infrequency between at least 1.0 to 1.4 THz such that substantially thesame results, (eg. ellipsometric PSI and/or DELTA), are achieved byanalyzing output from either of the selected detectors in the frequencyrange of between about 1.0 to 1.4 THz.

A preferred system also comprises a chopper for chopping theelectromagnetic beam which interacts with the sample, This enables noisereduction, particularly where data is obtained with the system locatedin a non-darkened room, such that spurious electromagnetic radiation ispresent.

A method of characterizing a sample comprises the steps of:

A) providing an ellipsometer or polarimeter as described above;

B) selecting a source and detector;

C) applying said selected source to cause substantially polarizedelectromagnetic radiation to impinge on and interact with said sample onsaid sample support, then proceed to and enter said selected detector,to the end that said detector provides output.

Said method also preferably involves chopping the substantiallypolarized electromagnetic radiation which is caused to impinge on andinteract with said sample on said sample support, and which thenproceeds to and enters said selected detector, to the end that saiddetector provides output based substantially only on the chopped beamcontent.

And, said method can further comprise performing at least one selectionfrom the group consisting of:

-   -   storing at least some output provided by said detector in        machine readable media;    -   analyzing at least some of the output provided by said detector        and storing at least some of the results of said analysis in        machine readable media;    -   displaying at least some output provided by said detector by        electronic and/or non-electronic means;    -   analyzing at least some of the output provided by said detector        and displaying at least some of the results of said analysis by        electronic and/or non-electronic means;    -   causing at least some output provided by said detector to        produce a signal which is applied to provide a concrete and        tangible result;    -   analyzing at least some of the output provided by said detector        and causing at least some thereof to produce a signal which is        applied to provide a concrete and tangible result.

Said method can further comprise the step of continuously or step-wiserotating at least one of the at least one odd-bounce polarization staterotation system present between said source and detector, or operating apresent electro, acousto or opto-modulator, during data acquisition.

The benefit is that, especially in ellipsometer/polarimeter etc. systemswhich operate in the IR range of wavelengths and below, it can bedifficult to cause rotation of a linear polarizer, (or analyzer),without adversely causing deviation of a beam of electromagneticradiation caused to pass therethrough, or causing mis-coordination ofmultiple elements thereof, (ie. multiple tipped wire linear polarizer asdescribed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,946,098). Said system allows setting fixedsubstantially linear polarizer, and analyzer azimuthal orientations, andusing the odd bounce optical image rotating element instead, to effectdifferent electromagnetic beam azimuthal rotation orientations.

It is also noted that various selected combinations of elements thatcomprise an ellipsometer or polarimeter, such as a specific selectionfrom:

-   -   a backward wave oscillator;    -   a Smith-Purcell cell;    -   a free electron laser; and    -   a solid state device;    -   preferably in functional combination with a frequency multiplier        for providing harmonics of a fundamental output frequency that        provides substantially polarized frequency output in a frequency        range between 300 GHz or lower and extending higher than at        least 1 THz;

and an FTIR Source;

in combination with selection from various types of Polarizers andAnalyzers and/or Compensators, as well as the motion of each (ie.stationary, rotatable or rotating), and beam chopper frequency duringdata acquisition;in further functional combination with a specific selection from:

-   -   a Golay cell detector;    -   a bolometer detector;    -   a solid state source device;        for each of the THz and IR ranges of operation, can provide        different quality or, for instance, ellipsometric PSI or DELTA        results, as quantified by measured Noise/Signal ratios, and        extent of wavelength range. As regards the later point, it is        noted that it can be advantageous to provide two THz sources        which provide different wavelength output and combine their        outputs.

At the time of this submittal it is believed that a preferred embodimentmakes use of a backward wave oscillator (BWO) in combination with amultiplier that provides x1, x2 x3 x6 and x9 capability, in functionalcombination with Golay cell or bolometer, provides good results in therange of from about 0.12-1.5 THz. Further, a conventional FTIR Source asused in a J.A. Woollam Co. IR-VASE (Reg. TM), to provide 10-150 THzcapability, has been shown capable of providing output down to about 1.0Thz. This beneficially allows an overlap between the THz and IR sourcesbetween about 1.0 and 1.4 Thz, which can be used for verification ofresults separately obtained using the THz and IR sources. In addition,it can be advantageous to cool a detector, (eg. by use of liquidhelium), and to adjust beam chopper rate, (eg. between about 12-50 Hz),differently for different source and detector combinations.

It is further believed that an ellipsometer or polarimeter system whichcomprises:

-   -   a2) a polarization state generator comprising a THz source of        electromagnetic radiation that provides substantially polarized        output in a frequency range between 300 GHz or lower and        extending higher than at least 1 THz; and        thereafter comprises at least one odd bounce optical image        rotating system which comprises:    -   an odd number of at least three reflective elements oriented        such that a beam of electromagnetic radiation provided by said        source of electromagnetic radiation interacts with each of said        at least three reflective elements of said at least one odd        bounce optical image rotating system and exits therefrom along a        non-deviated non-displaced trajectory, said beam of        electromagnetic radiation also interacting with a sample system        placed on said stage for supporting a sample system, and said        analyzer before entering said detector;        is definitely new and Patentable; particularly when it further        comprises at least two rotating elements, each thereof being        selected from the group consisting of:    -   rotating polarizer;    -   rotating compensator; and    -   rotating analyzer.

In addition, when the methodology which involves which the step ofproviding an ellipsometer or polarimeter system involves the selectionof:

-   -   a2) a polarization state generator comprising a THz source of        electromagnetic radiation that provides substantially polarized        output in a frequency range between 300 GHz or lower and        extending higher than at least 1 THz; and        providing at least one odd bounce optical image rotating system        which comprises:    -   an odd number of at least three reflective elements oriented        such that a beam of electromagnetic radiation provided by said        source of electromagnetic radiation interacts with each of said        at least three reflective elements of said at least one odd        bounce optical image rotating system and exits therefrom along a        non-deviated non-displaced trajectory, said beam of        electromagnetic radiation also interacting with a sample system        placed on said stage for supporting a sample system, and said        analyzer before entering said detector;        is definitely new and Patentable.        This is the case wherein during data collection said odd-bounce        optical image rotating system is rotated as a selection from the        group consisting of:    -   step-wise; and    -   continuously rotated.        Additional basis of Patentability is more particularly provided        when the system comprises at least two rotating elements, each        thereof being selected from the group consisting of:    -   rotating polarizer;    -   rotating compensator;    -   rotating analyzer; and    -   said odd-bounce optical image rotating system;        and wherein said selected two rotating elements are both        continuously rotated during data acquisition.

It is also presented that an ellipsometer or polarimeter system whichoperates in the THz range, and its method of use, which ellipsometer orpolarimeter comprises a chopper to chop the electromagnetic beam andprovide substantially only the chopped electromagnetic beam to thedetector, and which is in functional combination with at least tworotating elements, each thereof being selected from the group consistingof:

-   -   rotating polarizer;    -   rotating compensator;    -   rotating analyzer; and    -   odd bounce optical image rotating system;        which are caused to rotate during data collection; is believed        to be new, novel and non-obvious. This is especially the case        where said THz range ellipsometer or polarimeter system        comprises at least one continuously rotating odd bounce optical        image rotating system comprising an odd number of at least three        reflective elements oriented such that a beam of electromagnetic        radiation provided by said source of electromagnetic radiation        interacts with each of said at least three reflective elements        of said at least one odd bounce optical image rotating system        and exits therefrom along a non-deviated non-displaced        trajectory, said beam of electromagnetic radiation also        interacting with a sample system placed on said stage for        supporting a sample system, and said analyzer before entering        said detector.

Continuing, the foregoing was substantially disclosed in Co-PendingPending application Ser. No. 12/456,791 Filed Jun. 23, 2009. In thefollowing, variations on the foregoing, substantially as disclosed inProvisional Application Ser. No. 61/281,905 Filed Nov. 22, 2009, arediscussed.

Much as in the foregoing, a prepresent invention ellipsometer orpolarimeter system comprises:

-   -   a) a source selected from the group consisting of:        -   a1) an FTIR source (S2) of electromagnetic radiation in            functional combination with a polarization state generator,            that provides substantially polarized output in a frequency            range above about 1 THz; and        -   a2) a polarization state generator comprising an FTIR source            (S2) of electromagnetic radiation which provides            substantially polarized output in a frequency range above            about 1 THz.            One difference between that disclosed above, and what is now            disclosed, is that the presently disclosed system provides            that said polarization state generator is selected from the            group consisting of:    -   a21) a polarization state generator exit polarizer preceded by        an odd-bounce polarization state rotation system; and    -   a22) a polarization state generator exit polarizer preceded by a        polarization state generator entry polarizer.

As in the foregoing, a present invention ellipsometer or polarimetersystem further comprises:

-   -   and a source selected from the group consisting of:        -   a3) a THz source (S1) of electromagnetic radiation in            functional combination with a polarization state generator,            that provides substantially polarized output in a frequency            range between 300 GHz or lower and extending higher than at            least 1 THz.            Another difference between what was disclosed above and what            is now disclosed is that the presently disclosed system            provides that said polarization state generator is selected            from the group consisting of:    -   a4) a polarization state generator comprising a THz source (S1)        of electromagnetic radiation that provides substantially        polarized output in a frequency range between 300 GHz or lower        and extending higher than at least 1 THz, wherein said        polarization state generator is selected from the group        consisting of:        -   a41) a polarization state generator exit polarizer preceded            by an odd-bounce polarization state rotation system; and        -   a42) a polarization state generator exit polarizer preceded            by a polarization state generator entry polarizer.

As in the foregoing disclosure,

-   -   said THz source (S1) of electromagnetic radiation comprising at        least one selection from the group consisting of:        -   a backward wave oscillator (BWO);        -   a Smith-Purcell cell (SP); and        -   a free electron laser (FE);    -   optionally in functional combination with a frequency        multiplier (M) for providing harmonics of a fundamental output        frequency that provides substantially polarized frequency output        in a frequency range between 300 GHz or lower and extending        higher than at least 1 THz, and    -   said ellipsometer or polarimeter system further comprising means        for selecting between said THz (S1) and FTIR (S2) sources.        -   This is followed by:    -   b) a sample (S) support;    -   c) a detector system (D1) (D2) (D3) of electromagnetic radiation        comprising at least one selection from the group consisting of:        -   a golay cell (GC) detector; and        -   a bolometer (BOL) detector.            And said ellipsometer or polarimeter system again further            comprises, between said selected source and said selected            detector, at least one selection from the group:    -   a stationary, rotatable or rotating polarizer (P) between said        source (S1) (S2) and said sample (S) support;    -   a stationary, rotatable or rotating analyzer (A) between said        sample support (S) and said detector (GC) (BOL); and    -   a stationary, rotatable or rotating compensator (C) (C′) between        said source (S) and detector (GC) (BOL).        In use a selected functional combination of selected source,        optional polarization state generator, and detector is applied        to cause electromagnetic radiation to pass impinge on and        interact with a sample on said sample support (S), then enter        said selected detector (D1) (D2) (D3), to the end that said        detector produces an output.

A specific presently disclosed invention is found where the A2polarization state generator comprises an FTIR source (S2), and the A4polarization state generator comprises a THz source (S1), wherein a22and a42 are further elected.

Another presently disclosed invention is found where the A2 polarizationstate generator comprises an FTIR source (S2), and the A4 polarizationstate generator comprises a THz source (S1), wherein a21 and a41 arefurther elected.

Another presently disclosed invention is found where the A2 polarizationstate generator comprises an FTIR source (S2), and the A4 polarizationstate generator comprises a THz source (S1), wherein a21 and a42 arefurther elected.

Another presently disclosed invention is found where the A2 polarizationstate generator comprises an FTIR source (S2), and the A4 polarizationstate generator comprises a THz source (S1), wherein a22 and a41 arefurther elected.

A method of characterizing a sample comprising the steps of:

A) providing an ellipsometer or polarimeter system as just disclosed;

B) selecting a source and detector and polarization state generator;

C) applying said selected source to cause substantially polarizedelectromagnetic radiation to impinge on and interact with said sample(S) on said sample support, then proceed to and enter said selecteddetector, to the end that said detector provides output;

said method further comprising performing at least one selection fromthe group consisting of:

-   -   storing at least some output provided by said detector in        machine readable media;    -   analyzing at least some of the output provided by said detector        and storing at least some of the results of said analysis in        machine readable media;    -   displaying at least some output provided by said detector by        electronic and/or non-electronic means;    -   analyzing at least some of the output provided by said detector        and displaying at least some of the results of said analysis by        electronic and/or non-electronic means;    -   causing at least some output provided by said detector to        produce a signal which is applied to provide a concrete and        tangible result;    -   analyzing at least some of the output provided by said detector        and causing at least some thereof to produce a signal which is        applied to provide a concrete and tangible result.

Another recitation of a presently disclosed invention is that it is anellipsometer or polarimeter system comprising:

-   -   a) a source of electromagnetic radiation that provides at least        partially polarized output in a frequency range between 1.1 THz        or lower and extending to 1.4 THZ or higher; and    -   b) a polarization state generator consisting of a series        combination of a exit polarization state generator polarizer        preceded by a selection from the group consisting of:        -   an entry polarization state generator polarizer; and        -   an odd-bounce polarization state rotation system.            This is followed by:    -   c) a sample support; and    -   d) at least one detector of electromagnetic radiation, said at        least one detector being capable of detecting electromagnetic        radiation in a range of between 300 GHz or lower and extending        up at least 1.4 THZ.        Between said source and said detector, there is also present at        least one selection from the group:    -   a stationary, rotatable or rotating polarizer between said THZ        source and said sample support;    -   a stationary, rotatable or rotating analyzer between said sample        support and said detector;    -   a stationary, rotatable or rotating compensator between said        source and detector;        in addition to said polarization state generator components.

It is noted that the polarization state generator characterized by aselected odd-bounce polarization state rotation system followed by saidpolarization state generator exit polarizer operates by the odd-bouncepolarization state generator receiving an at least partially polarizedbeam of electromagnetic radiation from the source thereof, rotating thepolarization state of said at least partially polarized beam and passingit through said polarization state exit polarizer which serves toimprove the purity of the polarization state exiting therefrom.

It is also noted that the polarization state generator is characterizedby a polarization state generator entry polarizer followed by saidpolarization state generator exit polarizer operates by the polarizationstate generator entry polarizer receiving an at least partiallypolarized beam of electromagnetic radiation from the source thereof andthen passing it through said polarization state exit polarizer. Saidpolarization state generator entry polarizer serves to enable avoiding acondition wherein an effective azimuth of the at least partiallypolarized beam of electromagnetic radiation provided by the sourcethereof, and that of the polarization state generator exit polarizerpresent at essentially 90 degrees with respect to one another therebypreventing the at least partially polarized beam of electromagneticradiation from progressing beyond the polarization state generator exitpolarizer.

Another recitation of a present invention ellipsometer or polarimetersystem provides that it comprise:

-   -   a) a THZ source of electromagnetic radiation that provides at        least partially polarized output in a frequency range between        300 GHz or lower and extending to 1.1 THZ or higher; and    -   b) a polarization state generator consisting of a series        combination of a exit polarization state generator polarizer        preceded by a selection from the group consisting of:        -   an entry polarization state generator polarizer; and        -   an odd-bounce polarization state rotation system.            Said elements are followed by:    -   c) a sample support; and    -   d) at least one detector of electromagnetic radiation, said at        least one detector being capable of detecting electromagnetic        radiation in a range of between 300 GHz or lower and extending        up at least 1.1 THZ.        In addition to said polarization state generator components,        said ellipsometer or polarimeter system further comprises,        between said source and said detector, at least one selection        from the group:    -   a stationary, rotatable or rotating polarizer between said        source and said sample support;    -   a stationary, rotatable or rotating analyzer between said sample        support and said detector;    -   a stationary, rotatable or rotating compensator between said        source and detector.

Another recitation of a present invention ellipsometer or polarimetersystem provides that it comprise:

-   -   a) an FTIR source of electromagnetic radiation that provides at        least partially polarized output in a frequency range between        1.1 THz or lower and extending to 1.4 THZ or higher:    -   b) a polarization state generator consisting of a series        combination of a exit polarization state generator polarizer        preceded by a selection from the group consisting of:        -   an entry polarization state generator polarizer; and        -   an odd-bounce polarization state rotation system.            Said ellipsometer or polarimeter system then further            comprises:    -   c) a sample support; and    -   d) at least one detector of electromagnetic radiation, said at        least one detector being capable of detecting electromagnetic        radiation in a range of between 1.1 THz or lower and extending        up at least 1.4 THZ.        In addition to said polarization state generator components,        said ellipsometer or polarimeter system further comprises,        between said source and said detector, at least one selection        from the group:    -   a stationary, rotatable or rotating polarizer between said THZ        source and said sample support;    -   a stationary, rotatable or rotating analyzer between said sample        support and said detector;    -   a stationary, rotatable or rotating compensator between said        source and detector.

Finally, in view of recent case law, it is specifically disclosed that apresent invention system preferably comprises a Computer System whichcontrols element motion, (eg. stepwise or continuous rotation of aPolarizer (P) and/or Compensator (C, C′) and/or Analyzer (A) and/or OddBounce Image Rotating System (OB); operation of a Chopper (CH);positioning of a Sample (S); selection of a Source (S1, S2); selectionof a Detector (D1, D2, D3); and operation of a Source (S1, S2, S3)and/or Detector (D1, D2, D3). Further, a present invention systemcomprises a Computer System (CMP) which serves to analyze data providedby a Detector (D1, D2, D3) and Display said data or results of analysisthereof. That is, the present invention can be considered to be aComputer System (CMP) which comprises an Ellipsometer or Polarimeter,which Computer System (CMP) controls operation of elements of saidEllipsometer or Polarimeter to the end that Sample characterizing Datais developed, as well as analysis of, said data performed andpresentation of said data, or results of analysis thereof.

The present invention will be better understood by reference to theDetailed Description Section of this Specification, in combination withthe Drawings.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIGS. 1 a-1 c show demonstrative configurations for a present inventionellipsometer or polarimeter system.

FIG. 1 d shows an alternative polarization state generator involving amodulator.

FIGS. 1 e-1 g show systems similar to those in FIGS. 1 a-1 c, with therelative positions of the Odd Bounce image rotation system and Polarizerreversed.

FIG. 1 h indicate that the Odd Bounce image rotation system Polarizerreversed are controlled in synchrony.

FIGS. 1 i-1 k are similar to FIGS. 1 e-1 g, but with the Odd Bounceimage rotation system replaced with a second Polarizer.

FIGS. 2 a-2 d show various aspects of Therahertz frequency Sources.

FIGS. 2 e-2 g show a demonstrative detectors of Terahertz frequencies.

FIG. 3 a demonstrates an Odd Bounce image rotating system comprisingthree (3) reflecting elements.

FIG. 3 b demonstrates an Odd Bounce image rotating system comprisingfive (5) reflecting elements.

FIG. 4 demonstrates a preferred compensator (C) (C′) C″) which has beenused in a rotating compensator ellipsometer system for application inthe IR range of wavelengths.

FIG. 5 a demonstrates a combined Non-Brewster Angle and Brewster AnglePolarizer system.

FIG. 5 b demonstrates a dual tipped wire grid polarizer system.

FIG. 6 demonstrates data which can be achieved by application of thePresent Invention, including in an overlap frequency range between about1.0 and 1.4 THz.

FIG. 7 demonstrates displaying data obtained by practice of the presentinvention using a computer.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Turning now to the Drawings, FIGS. 1 a, 1 b and 1 c show variousapproaches to providing a Present Invention System. FIG. 1 a shows ThreeSources (S1) (S2) S3), which can each be a backward wave oscillator or aSmith-Purcell cell or a free electron laser or a solid state device.Also demonstrated are Beam Combiners (BC1) (BC2) (BC3) which serve todirect electromagnetic radiation from Sources (S1) (S2) S3),respectively, toward a Sample (S), via optional Polarizer (P), (thenatural source polarization can suffice), Odd Bounce Image RotatingSystem (OB) and Compensator (C). Said optional (P) (OB) (C) componentsare shown as typically, in combination, being termed a ConventionalPolarization State Generator (CPSG) and are included to polarize a beamof electromagnetic radiation provided by a Source (S1) (S2) S3). Asregards the Present Invention, however, it is possible that a selectedSource (S1) (S2) S3) can provide a beam of electromagnetic radiationwhich is already polarized, therefore, in this Specification it is to beunderstood that it is within the definition of “Polarization StateGenerator (PSG)” that it comprise the Source (S1) (S2) S3) with orwithout the presence of Conventional Polarization State Generator (CPSG)components. FIG. 1 a also shows that optional (OB′) (C′) and (P)components between the Sample (S) and a Detector (D1) D2). Note thatDetectors (D1) and (D2) have electromagnetic radiation directedthereinto by Beam Splitters/Directors. In use Source (S1) (S2) and (S3)can be energized or not so that a beam of electromagnetic radiationprogressing toward the Sample (S) comprises various ranges ofwavelengths. For instance, Source (S1) can be selected to provideTerahertz (Thz) frequencies, and Source (S2) selected to provideInfrared (IR) frequencies, and during use one or the other can beenergized so that only (THz) or (IR) wavelengths are provided, or bothcan be energized to provide a broad combined range of wavelengths,preferable with an overlap range of between about 1.0 Thz, and 1.4 Thzor higher, frequency. The same general description of FIG. 1 a appliesto FIGS. 1 b and 1 c, with the exception that the Sources and Detectorsare shown as configured differently. In FIG. 1 b the Sources (S1) (S2)(S3) and Detectors (D1) (D2) (D3) are simply sequentially slid intoposition. In FIG. 1 c, Input Beam Reflecting Means (BRI) and Output BeamReflecting Means (BRO) are shown as being rotatable to selectivelydirect electromagnetic radiation from one source or another toward theSample (S). The configurations shown in FIGS. 1 a-1 c are not to beconsidered limiting, but rather are demonstrative. For instance, it ispossible to choose a FIG. 1 a Source selection approach, and a FIG. 1 bor 1 c Detector selection arrangement etc. And it is within the scope ofthe Present Invention to provide only one Source, (ie. a Therahertzfrequency providing system), while providing a selection between twoDetectors (eg. a Golay cell or Bolometer).

It is also noted that the configuration in FIG. 1 a can be operated witha plurality of Sources simultaneously turned on to provide anelectromagnetic beam which contains a broad frequency range. Especially,but not exclusively, in such a configuration it is beneficial to adjustsaid sources providing output in the range of 1.0 to 1.4 THz such thatsubstantially the same results, (eg. ellipsometric PSI and/or DELTA),are achieved by analyzing output from any of the selected detectors inthe frequency range of between about 1.0 to 1.4 THz. This not onlyprovides continuity between the lower and upper extents of the frequencyrange, but provides an approach to assuring accuracy of results. If thesame results are achieved using very different sources ofelectromagnetic radiation, both can be considered to very likelyenabling acquisition of good data.

FIG. 1 d is included to disclose that an Alternative Polarization StateGenerator (APSG) configuration involving an optional Polarizer (P) and aModulator (MOD), can be applied in the present invention. Such an (APSG)configuration can be employed instead of, or in addition to componentsin the Conventional Polarization State Generator (CPSG) shown in FIGS. 1a-1 c. Also indicated is an Alternative Polarization State DetectorGenerator (APSD) configuration including a Modulator (MOD′). Again suchan (APSD) configuration can be employed instead of, or in addition tothe Conventional Polarization State Detector (CPSD) shown in FIGS. 1 a-1c. It is noted that various types of Modulators exist, including thosewhich apply an electric signal, or an acoustic signal or an opticalsignal to effect modulation of a polarization state.

Also shown in FIGS. 1 a-1 d is a Chopper (CH). This allows the beam tobe “chopped” at a selected frequency so that it can be monitoredseparate from non-chopped background electromagnetic radiation. Thisenables obtaining data which is not overwhelmed by noise, in anon-darkened room. The Chopper (CH) is shown a being located differentlyin each of FIGS. 1 a-1 d. This is to indicate that there is no requiredposition, with the only functional requirement being that the beam bechopped thereby. The system which comprises a Chopper (CH) will providesubstantially only the chopped electromagnetic beam to the Detector (D1)(D2) D3).

FIG. 1 e shows a system substantially similar to that in FIG. 1 a, butnote that the Odd Bounce Image Rotating System (OB) precedes thePolarizer (P) in the Polarization State Generator (PSG). FIG. 1 h alsoindicates that both the Odd Bounce Image Rotating System (OB) andPolarizer (P) are fitted with means, (eg. steppe motors), for effectingsynchronized rotation of (MOB) and (MOP). In use a natural polarizationstate from the Source (S1) is azimuthally rotated by the Odd BounceImage Rotating System (OB) and then passes through the Polarizer (P). Inthis system the Polarizer (P) is rotated azimuthally to correspond tothe azimuthal position of the polarization in the electromagnetic beamas it exits the Odd Bounce Image Rotating System (OB). This approach hasbeen found to work very well. The Odd Bounce Image Rotating System (OB)is substantially responsible for setting the azimuthal orientation ofthe beam polarization, and the Polarizer (P) “cleans-up” polarization ofthe beam exiting therefrom. FIGS. 1 f and 1 g are again very similar toFIGS. 1 b and 1 c, but with a similar reversal of position of the OddBounce Image Rotating System (OB) and the Polarizer, for the samepurpose as indicated with respect to FIGS. 1 e and 1 a.

FIGS. 1 i-1 k show similar configurations to FIGS. 1 e-1 g, but notethat a second Polarizer (P′) replaces the Odd Bounce Image RotatingSystems (OB) in FIGS. 1 e-1 g. In this case the second Polarizer (P′)serves to prevent Polarizer (P) being oriented so that it is at 90degrees with respect to the natural polarization emerging from theSource (1) (S2) (S3), therefore blocking its transmission therethrough.By adding Polarizer (P′) it is possible to set Polarizer (P) at anyazimuthal orientation and still achieve electromagnetic beamtransmission therethrough.

Turning now to FIGS. 2 a-2 d, insight to the operation of variousTerahertz sources is provided. FIG. 2 a shows that a Smith-Purcell (SP)cell comprises a Grating (G) and an electron beam (e⁻) passingthereover, with the result being that THz electromagnetic radiation isemitted. FIG. 2 b shows that a Free Electron Laser (FE) comprises asequence of Magnetic Poles (MP), and again an electron beam (e⁻) passingthereover, with the result being that THz electromagnetic radiation isemitted. FIG. 2 c shows a Backward Wave Oscillator (BWO) comprises aWaveguide (WG) through which electromagnetic radiation (EM) is passed inone direction while an electron beam (e⁻) passes therethrough in theopposite direction, again with the result that THz electromagneticradiation is emitted. FIG. 2 d demonstrates that a Terahertz source,(arbitrarily identified as (S1)), typically requires that a FrequencyMultiplier (M) be present to provide an extended frequency range output,(eg. from 300 GHz or below through at lest 1.4 THz). While notdiagrammatically shown, as there is really nothing to show, it is notedthat an IR range Source of electromagnetic radiation is preferably aFourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Source which provides a spectroscopicrange of wavelengths. It is noted that (FTIR) actually refers to anapproach in analysis of a spectrum of wavelengths involving use of ameans for collecting a multiplicity of wavelengths simultaneously, andapplication of a Fourier Transform to data, rather than via use of amonochromator. However, it is common to identify the Source of thespectrum of IR wavelengths as an FTIR Source. It is specifically notedthat while the Odd-Bounce Image Rotation System, (see FIGS. 3 a and 3b), is present in the IR-VASE (Reg. TM), it has never been applied atfrequencies below 10 THz. And specifically, it has not been applied insystems comprising a Backward Wave Oscillator (BWO) or a Smith-Purcellcell or a Free Electron Laser which provide frequencies down to 300 GHzor below. The application thereof at said frequencies is new with thepresent invention. It is also new with the present invention to combinea FTIR Source with a Backward Wave Oscillator (BWO) or a Smith-Purcellcell or a Free Electron Laser to provide a practical system forpracticing ellipsometry over a wide frequency range of from 300 GHz orbelow upward through the IR range.

FIGS. 2 e and 2 f demonstrate basic components of Detectors, (eg. Golaycell (GC) and Bolometer (BOL)). A Golay cell basically comprises twoChambers (CH1) and (CH2). In use electromagnetic radiation (EM) entersone Chamber (CH1) and heats a gas therein, which expands. This causesthe Diaphragm (DIA) to change shape which causes a Probe Beam (PB)entered to the Second Chamber (CH2) to reflect along a different pathwaywhich is then detected by a detector (not shown). FIG. 2 f shows that aBolometer (BOL) operates by directing a electromagnetic radiation toimpinge on a material ( ) which changes resistance with its temperature.Also shown are a Voltage Source (V) and a Current Detector (I). In use achange in the current flow indicates that the electromagnetic radiationhas heated the material (Ω). FIG. 2 g show a demonstrative detector ofTerahertz frequencies comprises a P/N junction onto whichelectromagnetic radiation (EM) is impinged, and which produces ameasurable voltage (V). Further, while many materials can be applied insolid state devices, a particularly relevant material for application inTHz and IR frequency ranges is disclosed as being “Deuterated TriglycineSulfate”, which is typically referred to as (DTGS), optionally embeddedin Poly-Vinylidene Fluoride (PVDF). Said material shows very highpyroelectric performance.

(Note, FIG. 2 g should also be considered to present at least a portionof a solid state Source of Terahertz frequencies, wherein a voltage isapplied, and electromagnetic radiation emission results. It is to beunderstood that Solid State Sources and Detectors for providing anddetecting THz and/or IR frequency range electromagnetic radiation can besubstituted for, or used in combination with any of the other types ofSource and Detector types identified herein).

Turning now to FIGS. 3 a and 3 b, there is represented in FIG. 3 a athree (3) bounce Odd Bounce image rotating system (OBIRS) comprisingthree (3) reflective elements (RE1), (RE2) and (RE3), oriented withrespect to one another such that an input beam of electromagneticradiation (EMI) exits as an output beam of electromagnetic radiation(EMO) without any deviation or displacement being entered into the locusthereof. FIG. 3 b demonstrates a five (5) bounce odd bounce imagerotating system (OBIRS) wherein five reflective elements (RE1′), (RE2′)(RE3′), (RE4′) and (RE5′) oriented with respect to one another such aninput beam of electromagnetic radiation (EMI) exits as an output beam ofelectromagnetic radiation (EMO) without any deviation or displacementbeing entered into the locus thereof. Note generally that the angle ofincidence of the (EMI) and (EMO) beams of electromagnetic radiation arenearer normal than is the case in the FIG. 3 a three (3) bounce oddbounce image rotating system (OBIRS). This is beneficial in that thecloser to normal the angle of incidence, the less aberration effects areentered to the beam. However, it is also to be appreciated thatconstruction of the FIG. 3 b system is more difficult than isconstruction of a FIG. 3 a system.

FIG. 4 demonstrates a preferred compensator (C) (C′) for use in arotating compensator ellipsometer system for application in the IR rangeof wavelengths. The compensator system comprises, as shown in uprightside elevation, first (OS1) and second (OS2) orientation adjustablemirrored elements which each have reflective surfaces. Note theadjustability enabling pivot (PP1) (PP2) mountings. Said compensatorsystem further comprises a third element (TE) which, as viewed inupright side elevation presents with first (IS1) and second (IS2) sideswhich project to the left and right and downward from an upper point(UP2), said third element (TE) being made of material which providesreflective interfaces on first and second sides inside thereof. Saidthird element (TE) is oriented with respect to the first (OS1) andsecond (OS2) orientation adjustable elements such that in use an inputelectromagnetic beam of radiation (LB) caused to approach one of saidfirst (OS1) and second (OS2) orientation adjustable mirrored elementsalong an essentially horizontally oriented locus, is caused toexternally reflect therefrom upwardly vertically oriented, (see beam(R1)) then enter said third element (TE) and essentially totallyinternally reflect from one of said first and second sides thereof, thenproceed along an essentially horizontal locus (see beam (R2)), andessentially totally internally reflect from the other of said first(OS1) and second (OS2) sides and proceed along an essentially downwardvertically oriented locus, (see beam (R3)), then reflect from the otherof said first (OS1) and second (OS2) adjustable mirrored elements andproceed along an essentially horizontally oriented (LB′) propagationdirection locus which is essentially undefeated and undisplaced from theessentially horizontally oriented locus of said input beam ofelectromagnetic radiation even when said compensator is caused to rotateabout the locus of the beam of electromagnetic radiation, with theresult being that retardation is entered between orthogonal componentsof said input electromagnetic beam of radiation. Also shown are thirdelement lower side (IS3), with indication that it can be shaped as shownby (IS3′), and retain functionality.

FIGS. 5 a and 5 b demonstrate systems which can be used as Polarizer (P)and Analyzer (A) in FIGS. 1 a-1 c. FIG. 5 a demonstrates a Polarizer (P)comprised of Non-Brewster Angle (NBR) and Non-Brewster (BR) Anglecomponents. Shown is a beam of electromagnetic radiation (EMW) passingdemonstrates a compensator design for optional compensators (C) (C′)will be present and caused to rotate during data acquisition and the oddbounce image rotating system (OBIRS) will be stepped to variousazimuthal angle positions and set motionless during data acquisition,which the fixed linear polarizer (FP) and analyzer (A) (A′) are heldstationary. That is, the preferred present invention application is in arotating compensator ellipsometer system, wherein the combination of thefixed polarizer and the odd bounce image rotating system (OBIRS) providean effective rotatable polarizer. This is useful where a polarizer,(such as tipped wire grid plate polarizers used in the IR wavelengthrange), is difficult to rotate while maintaining alignment of thecomponents therein and while avoiding deviation and displacement affectsbetween input (EMI) and output (EMO) electromagnetic beams.

FIG. 5 b demonstrates an alternative possible polarizer, comprising adual tipped wire grid polarizer system comprising first (WG1) and second(WG2) wire grid polarizers which have fast axes of polarization orientedwith their fast axes parallel to one another, each thereof having firstand second essentially parallel surfaces. Note however, that theessentially parallel sides of (WG1) are tipped with respect to theessentially parallel sides of (WG2), as characterized by the angle (∝).The purpose of angle (∝) is to divert unwanted reflections (R1) and(R2).

Note that both Polarizers in FIGS. 5 a and 5 b provide substantiallyundefeated and undisplaced output beams therefrom, with respect to beamsinput thereto, even when the polarizer is rotated about the locus of abeam of electromagnetic radiation.

It is to be understood that while preferred embodiments of Polarizersprovide a linear polarization as output, the present invention can beused with a substantially linearly polarizing polarizer, or a polarizerwhich provides partially linearly polarization. In the Claims the term“polarizer” should then be interpreted broadly to mean preferably alinear polarizer, but including polarizers which provide partiallylinearly polarization. Further, in combination with a Compensator, otherpolarization states can be achieved.

Finally, FIG. 6 shows that a preferred embodiment of the presentinvention allows sample investigation in both the THz and IR ranges,(eg. from 300 GHz to abut 1.4 THz, and from about 1.0 THz and higherfrequency). Further, it is indicated that below about 1.4 THz a first(S1) is used to provide the electromagnetic radiation, and above about1.0 THz a second (S2) Source is used to provide the electromagneticradiation. FIG. 6 shows an overlap in the range of about 1.0 to about1.4 THZ, and that a present invention system preferably provides thesame results, (eg. ellipsometic PSI and/or DELKTA), when Detector outputis analyzed to provide, for instance, a Sample characterizing PSI (ψ),(or DELTA (Δ). FIG. 6 should be viewed as demonstrating a concrete andtangible presentation of results which can be achieved by application ofthe Present Invention.

FIG. 7 demonstrates displaying data (DIS) provided by a Detector (DET),(eg. D1, D2 D3 in FIGS. 1 a-1 d), obtained by practice of the presentinvention using machine readable media of a computer (CMP), as well asindicates the Computer (CMP) can control Ellipsometer/Polarimeterelements operation.

Having hereby disclosed the subject matter of the present invention, itshould be obvious that many modifications, substitutions, and variationsof the present invention are possible in view of the teachings. It istherefore to be understood that the invention may be practiced otherthan as specifically described, and should be limited in its breadth andscope only by the Claims.

1. An ellipsometer or polarimeter system comprising: a) a sourceselected from the group consisting of: a1) an FTIR source (S2) ofelectromagnetic radiation in functional combination with a polarizationstate generator, that provides substantially polarized output in afrequency range above about 1 THz; and a2) a polarization stategenerator comprising an FTIR source (S2) of electromagnetic radiationwhich provides substantially polarized output in a frequency range aboveabout 1 THz, wherein said polarization state generator is selected fromthe group consisting of: a21) a polarization state generator exitpolarizer preceded by an odd-bounce polarization state rotation system;and a22) a polarization state generator exit polarizer preceded by apolarization state generator entry polarizer; and a source selected fromthe group consisting of: a3) a THz source (S1) of electromagneticradiation in functional combination with a polarization state generator,that provides substantially polarized output in a frequency rangebetween 300 GHz or lower and extending higher than at least 1 THz; a4) apolarization state generator comprising a THz source (S1) ofelectromagnetic radiation that provides substantially polarized outputin a frequency range between 300 GHz or lower and extending higher thanat least 1 THz, wherein said polarization state generator is selectedfrom the group consisting of: a41) a polarization state generator exitpolarizer preceded by an odd-bounce polarization state rotation system;and a42) a polarization state generator exit polarizer preceded by apolarization state generator entry polarizer; wherein said THz source(S1) of electromagnetic radiation comprising at least one selection fromthe group consisting of: a backward wave oscillator (BWO); aSmith-Purcell cell (SP); and a free electron laser (FE); optionally infunctional combination with a frequency multiplier (M) for providingharmonics of a fundamental output frequency that provides substantiallypolarized frequency output in a frequency range between 300 GHz or lowerand extending higher than at least 1 THz; said ellipsometer orpolarimeter system further comprising means for selecting between saidTHz (S1) and FTIR (S2) sources; b) a sample (S) support; c) a detectorsystem (D1) (D2) (D3) of electromagnetic radiation comprising at leastone selection from the group consisting of: a golay cell (GC) detector;and a bolometer (BOL) detector; said ellipsometer or polarimeter systemfurther comprising, between said selected source and said selecteddetector, at least one selection from the group: a stationary, rotatableor rotating polarizer (P) between said source (S1) (S2) and said sample(S) support; a stationary, rotatable or rotating analyzer (A) betweensaid sample support (S) and said detector (GC) (BOL); and a stationary,rotatable or rotating compensator (C) (C′) between said source (S) anddetector (GC) (BOL); such that in use a selected functional combinationof selected source, optional polarization state generator, and detectoris applied to cause electromagnetic radiation to pass impinge on andinteract with a sample on said sample support (S), then enter saidselected detector (D1) (D2) (D3), to the end that said detector producesan output.
 2. An ellipsometer or polarimeter as in claim 1, in which theA2 polarization state generator comprises an FTIR source (S2), and theA4 polarization state generator comprising a THz source (S1) areselected, and in which a22 and a42 are further elected.
 3. Anellipsometer or polarimeter as in claim 1, in which the A2 polarizationstate generator comprising an FTIR source (S2), and the A4 polarizationstate generator comprising a THz source (S1) are selected, and in whicha21 and a41 are further elected.
 4. An ellipsometer or polarimeter as inclaim 1, in which the A2 polarization state generator comprising an FTIRsource (S2), and the A4 polarization state generator comprising a THzsource (S1) are selected, and in which a21 and a42 are further elected.5. An ellipsometer or polarimeter as in claim 1, in which the A2polarization state generator comprising an FTIR source (S2), and the A4polarization state generator comprising a THz source (S1) are selected,and in which a22 and a41 are further elected.
 6. A method ofcharacterizing a sample comprising the steps of: A) providing anellipsometer or polarimeter system comprising; a) a source selected fromthe group consisting of: a1) an FTIR source (S2) of electromagneticradiation in functional combination with a polarization state generator,that provides substantially polarized output in a frequency range aboveabout 1 THz; and a2) a polarization state generator comprising an FTIRsource (S2) of electromagnetic radiation which provides substantiallypolarized output in a frequency range above about 1 THz, wherein saidpolarization state generator is selected from the group consisting of:a21) a polarization state generator exit polarizer preceded by anodd-bounce polarization state rotation system; and a22) a polarizationstate generator exit polarizer preceded by a polarization stategenerator entry polarizer; and a source selected from the groupconsisting of: a3) a THz source (S1) of electromagnetic radiation infunctional combination with a polarization state generator, thatprovides substantially polarized output in a frequency range between 300GHz or lower and extending higher than at least 1 THz; a4) apolarization state generator comprising a THz source (S1) ofelectromagnetic radiation that provides substantially polarized outputin a frequency range between 300 GHz or lower and extending higher thanat least 1 THz, wherein said polarization state generator is selectedfrom the group consisting of: a41) a polarization state generator exitpolarizer preceded by an odd-bounce polarization state rotation system;and a42) a polarization state generator exit polarizer preceded by apolarization state generator entry polarizer; wherein said THz source(S1) of electromagnetic radiation comprising at least one selection fromthe group consisting of: a backward wave oscillator (BWO); aSmith-Purcell cell (SP); and a free electron laser (FE); optionally infunctional combination with a frequency multiplier (M) for providingharmonics of a fundamental output frequency that provides substantiallypolarized frequency output in a frequency range between 300 GHz or lowerand extending higher than at least 1 THz; said ellipsometer orpolarimeter system further comprising means for selecting between saidTHz (S1) and FTIR (S2) sources; b) a sample (5) support; c) a detector(D1) (D2) (D3) system of electromagnetic radiation comprising at leastone selection from the group consisting of: a golay cell (GC) detector;and a bolometer (BOL) detector; said ellipsometer or polarimeter systemfurther comprising, between said selected source and said selecteddetector, at least one selection from the group: a stationary, rotatableor rotating polarizer (P) between said source (S1) (S2) and said sample(S) support; a stationary, rotatable or rotating analyzer (A) betweensaid sample support (S) and said detector (GC) (BOL); and a stationary,rotatable or rotating compensator (C) (C′) between said source (S) anddetector (GC) (BOL); such that in use a selected functional combinationof selected source, optional polarization state generator, and detectoris applied to cause electromagnetic radiation to pass impinge on andinteract with a sample on said sample support (S), then enter saidselected detector (D1) (D2) (D3), to the end that said detector producesan output; B) selecting a source and detector and polarization stategenerator; C) applying said selected source to cause substantiallypolarized electromagnetic radiation to impinge on and interact with saidsample (S) on said sample support, then proceed to and enter saidselected detector, to the end that said detector provides output; saidmethod further comprising performing at least one selection from thegroup consisting of: storing at least some output provided by saiddetector in machine readable media; analyzing at least some of theoutput provided by said detector and storing at least some of theresults of said analysis in machine readable media; displaying at leastsome output provided by said detector by electronic and/ornon-electronic means; analyzing at least some of the output provided bysaid detector and displaying at least some of the results of saidanalysis by electronic and/or non-electronic means; causing at leastsome output provided by said detector to produce a signal which isapplied to provide a concrete and tangible result; analyzing at leastsome of the output provided by said detector and causing at least somethereof to produce a signal which is applied to provide a concrete andtangible result.
 7. An ellipsometer or polarimeter system comprising: a)a source of electromagnetic radiation that provides at least partiallypolarized output in a frequency range between 300 GHz or lower andextending to 1.4 THZ or higher, said source comprising a functionalcombination of: a THZ source of electromagnetic radiation in a frequencyrange of between 300 GHz or lower and extending to at least about 1.1THZ, and an FTIR source of electromagnetic radiation in a frequencyrange of between about 1.1 THZ or lower and extending to at least 1.4THZ, said source further comprising means for selecting between saidFTIR AND THZ sources; b) a polarization state generator consisting of aseries combination of a exit polarization state generator polarizerpreceded by a selection from the group consisting of: an entrypolarization state generator polarizer; and an odd-bounce polarizationstate rotation system; c) a sample support; d) at least one detector ofelectromagnetic radiation, said at least one detector being capable ofdetecting electromagnetic radiation in a range of between 300 GHz orlower and extending up at least 1.4 THZ; said ellipsometer orpolarimeter system further comprising, between said source and saiddetector, at least one selection from the group: a stationary, rotatableor rotating polarizer between said source and said sample support; astationary, rotatable or rotating analyzer between said sample supportand said detector; a stationary, rotatable or rotating compensatorbetween said source and detector; in addition to said polarization stategenerator components.
 8. An ellipsometer or polarimeter system as inclaim 6, in which the polarization state generator is characterized by:a selected odd-bounce polarization state rotation system is followed bysaid polarization state generator exit polarizer such that in use theodd-bounce polarization state generator receives an at least partiallypolarized beam of electromagnetic radiation from the source thereof,rotates the polarization state of said at least partially polarized beamand then passes it through said polarization state exit polarizer whichserves to improve the purity of the polarization state exitingtherefrom.
 9. An ellipsometer or polarimeter system as in claim 6, inwhich the polarization state generator is characterized by: a selectedpolarization state generator entry polarizer is followed by saidpolarization state generator exit polarizer such that in use thepolarization state generator entry polarizer receives an at leastpartially polarized beam of electromagnetic radiation from the sourcethereof and then passes it through said polarization state exitpolarizer, said polarization state generator entry polarizer serving toenable avoiding a condition wherein an effective azimuth of the at leastpartially polarized beam of electromagnetic radiation provided by thesource thereof, and that of the polarization state generator exitpolarizer present at essentially 90 degrees with respect to one anotherthereby preventing the at least partially polarized beam ofelectromagnetic radiation from progressing beyond the polarization stategenerator exit polarizer.
 10. An ellipsometer or polarimeter systemcomprising: a) a THZ source of electromagnetic radiation that providesat least partially polarized output in a frequency range between 300 GHzor lower and extending to 1.1 THZ or higher; b) a polarization stategenerator consisting of a series combination of a exit polarizationstate generator polarizer preceded by a selection from the groupconsisting of: an entry polarization state generator polarizer; and anodd-bounce polarization state rotation system; c) a sample support; d)at least one detector of electromagnetic radiation, said at least onedetector being capable of detecting electromagnetic radiation in a rangeof between 300 GHz or lower and extending up at least 1.1 THZ; saidellipsometer or polarimeter system further comprising, between said THZsource and said detector, at least one selection from the group: astationary, rotatable or rotating polarizer between said source and saidsample support; a stationary, rotatable or rotating analyzer betweensaid sample support and said detector; a stationary, rotatable orrotating compensator between said source and detector; in addition tosaid polarization state generator components.
 11. An ellipsometer orpolarimeter system as in claim 10, in which the polarization stategenerator is characterized by: a selected odd-bounce polarization staterotation system is followed by said polarization state generator exitpolarizer such that in use the odd-bounce polarization state generatorreceives an at least partially polarized beam of electromagneticradiation from the source thereof, rotates the polarization state ofsaid at least partially polarized beam and then passes it through saidpolarization state exit polarizer which serves to improve the purity ofthe polarization state exiting therefrom.
 12. An ellipsometer orpolarimeter system as in claim 10, in which the polarization stategenerator is characterized by: a selected polarization state generatorentry polarizer is followed by said polarization state generator exitpolarizer such that in use the polarization state generator entrypolarizer receives an at least partially polarized beam ofelectromagnetic radiation from the source thereof and then passes itthrough said polarization state exit polarizer, said polarization stategenerator entry polarizer serving to enable avoiding a condition whereinan effective azimuth of the at least partially polarized beam ofelectromagnetic radiation provided by the source thereof, and that ofthe polarization state generator exit polarizer present at essentially90 degrees with respect to one another thereby preventing the at leastpartially polarized beam of electromagnetic radiation from progressingbeyond the polarization state generator exit polarizer.
 13. Anellipsometer or polarimeter system comprising: a) an FTIR source ofelectromagnetic radiation that provides at least partially polarizedoutput in a frequency range between 1.1 THz or lower and extending to1.4 THZ or higher; b) a polarization state generator consisting of aseries combination of a exit polarization state generator polarizerpreceded by a selection from the group consisting of: an entrypolarization state generator polarizer; and an odd-bounce polarizationstate rotation system; c) a sample support; d) at least one detector ofelectromagnetic radiation, said at least one detector being capable ofdetecting electromagnetic radiation in a range of between 1.1 THz orlower and extending up at least 1.4 THZ; said ellipsometer orpolarimeter system further comprising, between said source and saiddetector, at least one selection from the group: a stationary, rotatableor rotating polarizer between said THZ source and said sample support; astationary, rotatable or rotating analyzer between said sample supportand said detector; a stationary, rotatable or rotating compensatorbetween said source and detector; in addition to said polarization stategenerator components.
 14. An ellipsometer or polarimeter system as inclaim 13, in which the polarization state generator is characterized by:a selected odd-bounce polarization state rotation system is followed bysaid polarization state generator exit polarizer such that in use theodd-bounce polarization state generator receives an at least partiallypolarized beam of electromagnetic radiation from the source thereof,rotates the polarization state of said at least partially polarized beamand then passes it through said polarization state exit polarizer whichserves to improve the purity of the polarization state exitingtherefrom.
 15. An ellipsometer or polarimeter system as in claim 13, inwhich the polarization state generator is characterized by: a selectedpolarization state generator entry polarizer is followed by saidpolarization state generator exit polarizer such that in use thepolarization state generator entry polarizer receives an at leastpartially polarized beam of electromagnetic radiation from the sourcethereof and then passes it through said polarization state exitpolarizer, said polarization state generator entry polarizer serving toenable avoiding a condition wherein an effective azimuth of the at leastpartially polarized beam of electromagnetic radiation provided by thesource thereof, and that of the polarization state generator exitpolarizer present at essentially 90 degrees with respect to one anotherthereby preventing the at least partially polarized beam ofelectromagnetic radiation from progressing beyond the polarization stategenerator exit polarizer.
 16. A method as in claim 6, which comprisesproviding said odd bounce (OB) (OB′) polarization state rotation systemand which further comprising the step of continuously or step-wiserotating the at least one odd-bounce (OB) (OB′) polarization staterotation system present between said source and detector during dataacquisition.
 17. A method as in claim 6, which further comprisesproviding a continuously or step-wise rotating said at least oneselection from the group consisting of: a stationary, rotatable orrotating polarizer (P) between said THz source and said sample support;a stationary, rotatable or rotating analyzer (A) between said samplesupport and said detector; a stationary, rotatable or rotatingcompensator (C) (C′) between said source and detector.
 18. A method asin claim 6, in which the step of providing an ellipsometer orpolarimeter system which includes providing at least one selection fromthe group comprising: a stationary, rotatable or rotating polarizer (P)between said THz source and said sample support; a stationary, rotatableor rotating analyzer (A) between said sample (S) support and saiddetector; a stationary, rotatable or rotating compensator (C) (C′)between said source and detector; further comprises, in said selectiongroup: an electro, acousto or opto-modulator.
 19. A method as in claim18, in which the selection group providing for the step of continuouslyor step-wise rotating said at least one selection from the groupconsisting of: a stationary, rotatable or rotating polarizer (P) betweensaid THz source (S1) and said sample (S) support; a stationary,rotatable or rotating analyzer (A) between said sample (S) support andsaid detector; a stationary, rotatable or rotating compensator (C) (C′)between said source and detector; further comprises the possibility of:operating said an electro, acousto or opto-modulator.
 20. A method as inclaims 6, in which the step of providing a THz source (S1) ofelectromagnetic radiation that provides substantially polarized outputin a frequency range between 300 GHz or lower and extending higher thanat least 1 THz, in which the selection group consisting of: a backwardwave oscillator (BWO); a Smith-Purcell cell (SP); and a free electronlaser (FE); also comprises: a solid state source device; said selectiontherefrom being in functional combination with a frequency multiplier(M), for providing harmonics of a fundamental output frequencytherefrom, to provide a substantially polarized frequency output in afrequency range between 300 GHz or lower and extending higher than atleast about 1.4 THz; and in which the detector system (D1) (D2) (D3) ofone selection group consisting of: a golay (GC) cell detector ofelectromagnetic radiation; and a bolometer (BOL) detector ofelectromagnetic radiation; further comprises: a solid state detector.21. A method as in claims 6 in which the step of providing a detector(D1) of electromagnetic radiation in a frequency range between 300 GHzor lower and extending higher than at least about 1.4 THz involvesselecting said Golay cell.
 22. A method as in claims 6 in which the stepof providing a detector (D2) of electromagnetic radiation above about 1THz from said FTIR source (S2), involves selecting said bolometer (BOL).23. A method as in claims 6 in which the selection group for said THzsource (S1) of electromagnetic radiation further includes: a solid statesource device; and wherein the means for selecting between said THz (S1)and FTIR (S2) source further includes means for selecting said solidstate source device; and in which the detector selection group furtherincludes: a solid state detector.
 24. An ellipsometer or polarimetersystem as in claim 1 wherein at least one odd bounce (OB) (OB′) opticalimage rotating system is selected and comprises an odd number of atleast three reflective elements oriented such that a beam ofelectromagnetic radiation provided by said source of electromagneticradiation interacts with each of said at least three reflective elementsof said at least one odd bounce optical image rotating system and exitstherefrom along a non-deviated non-displaced trajectory, said beam ofelectromagnetic radiation also interacting with a sample system placedon said stage for supporting a sample system, and said analyzer beforeentering said detector.
 25. An ellipsometer or polarimeter system as inclaim 24, in which the at least one odd bounce (OB) (OB′) optical imagerotating system consists of a selection from the group consisting of:three; and five; reflective elements.
 26. A method as in claim 6,wherein at least one odd-bounce (OB) (OB′) polarization state rotationsystem is selected, and wherein said odd bounce (OB) (OB′) polarizationstate rotation system comprises an odd number of at least threereflective elements oriented such that a beam of electromagneticradiation provided by said source of electromagnetic radiation interactswith each of said at least three reflective elements of said at leastone odd bounce optical image rotating system and exits therefrom along anon-deviated non-displaced trajectory, said beam of electromagneticradiation also interacting with a sample system placed on said stage forsupporting a sample system, and said analyzer before entering saiddetector.
 27. A method as in claim 6, which further comprises practicingsaid method at least twice, once using a selected THz source (S1) andonce using an IR source (S2) in combination with at least one selecteddetector, both of said sources (S1) (S2) providing output in the rangeof 1.0 to 1.4 THz; said method further comprising coordinating said twosources (S1) (S2) such that substantially the same results, includingellipsometric results, are achieved by analyzing output from either ofthe selected detectors in the frequency range of between about 1.0 to1.4 THz.
 28. A method as in claim 6, which further comprises practicingsaid method using both a selected THz source (S1) and an IR source (S2)in combination with at least one selected detector, both of said sources(S1) (S2) providing output in the range of 1.0 to 1.4 THz; said methodfurther comprising coordinating said two sources (S1) (S2) such thatsubstantially the same results, including ellipsometric results, areachieved by analyzing output from either of the selected detectors inthe frequency range of between about 1.0 to 1.4 THz.
 29. A system as inclaim 1, in which the backward wave oscillator is selected as thesource.
 30. A method as in claim 6, in which the step of selecting asource involves selecting a backward wave oscillator.
 31. A system as inclaim 1, which further comprises a chopper (CH) to chop theelectromagnetic beam and provide substantially only the choppedelectromagnetic beam to the detector.
 32. A method as in claim 6, inwhich the step of providing a system further involves providing a beamchopper (CH), and provide substantially only the chopped electromagneticbeam to the detector.
 33. An ellipsometer or polarimeter system as inclaim 1, which comprises the selection: a2) a polarization stategenerator comprising a THz source (S1) of electromagnetic radiation thatprovides substantially polarized output in a frequency range between 300GHz or lower and extending higher than at least 1 THz; and thereaftercomprises at least one odd bounce (OB) (OB′) optical image rotatingsystem which comprises: an odd number of at least three reflectiveelements oriented such that a beam of electromagnetic radiation providedby said source of electromagnetic radiation interacts with each of saidat least three reflective elements of said at least one odd bounceoptical image rotating system and exits therefrom along a non-deviatednon-displaced trajectory, said beam of electromagnetic radiation alsointeracting with a sample system placed on said stage for supporting asample system, and said analyzer before entering said detector.
 34. Anellipsometer or polarimeter system as in claim 33, which comprises atleast two rotating elements, each thereof being selected from the groupconsisting of: rotating polarizer (P); rotating compensator (C) (C′);rotating analyzer (A); and odd bounce (OB) (OB′) optical image rotatingsystem.
 35. An ellipsometer or polarimeter system as in claim 1, whichcomprises two rotating compensators (C) (C′).
 36. An ellipsometer orpolarimeter system as in claim 1, which comprises a rotating compensator(C) (C′) and a rotating analyzer (A).
 37. An ellipsometer or polarimetersystem as in claim 1, which comprises a rotating compensator (C) (C′)and at least one odd-bounce (OB) (OB′) optical image rotating system isselected and continuously rotated.
 38. An ellipsometer or polarimetersystem as in claim 1, which comprises a rotating analyzer (A) and saidodd-bounce optical (OB) (PB′) image rotating system is continuouslyrotated.
 39. An ellipsometer or polarimeter system as in claim 1 whichfurther comprises a chopper (CH) to chop the electromagnetic beam andprovide substantially only the chopped electromagnetic beam to thedetector.
 40. An ellipsometer or polarimeter system as in claim 1 whichfurther comprises a chopper (CH) to chop the electromagnetic beam andprovide substantially only the chopped electromagnetic beam to thedetector; and comprises at least two rotating elements, each thereofbeing selected from the group consisting of: rotating polarizer (P);rotating compensator (C) (C′); rotating analyzer (A); and odd bounce(OB) (OB′) optical image rotating system; which are caused to rotateduring data collection.
 41. A method as in claim 6, in which the step ofproviding an ellipsometer or polarimeter system further comprisesproviding a computer (CMP), said computer serving to control rotation ofat least one rotating element, and further serving to perform at leastone selection from the group consisting of: storing at least some outputprovided by said detector in machine readable media; analyzing at leastsome of the output provided by said detector and storing at least someof the results of said analysis in machine readable media; displaying atleast some output provided by said detector by electronic and/ornon-electronic means; analyzing at least some of the output provided bysaid detector and displaying at least some of the results of saidanalysis by electronic and/or non-electronic means; causing at leastsome output provided by said detector to produce a signal which isapplied to provide a concrete and tangible result; analyzing at leastsome of the output provided by said detector and causing at least somethereof to produce a signal which is applied to provide a concrete andtangible result; and effect presentation of at least some of said dataand/or results of analysis thereof.